Children born in lockdown show weaker executive function at age 4, study finds
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Children born during the first COVID-19 lockdown in England had lower reported levels of executive function—crucial skills involved in making plans, solving problems and adapting to new situations—suggest findings from a study published online in the Archives of Disease in Childhood.
These children had a uniquely disrupted first year, with severely restricted social interaction between March 23, 2020, and July 19, 2021.
Government rules at the time included limiting contact with friends and family, mandated social distancing, wearing face coverings, and closing baby groups and recreational spaces.
To assess the impact of these measures on child development, U.K. researchers set up the BICYCLE study (Born In COVID Year—Core Lockdown Effects), hosted by City St. George's, University of London. This research focused on a subsample of 205 children born during the first lockdown, between March 23 and June 23, 2020.
The study is the first to include a large sample of school-age children born during lockdown in England.
The children were directly assessed using standardized measures for language and nonverbal reasoning ability. Parents or caregivers also completed questionnaires about their children's executive functioning—including emotional control, working memory, planning and organizing, and independent problem-solving. They were also asked about their child's fine and gross motor skills.
Twenty-five of the children were assessed in person, and 180 were assessed remotely via Zoom using identical protocols that included three to four sessions lasting 45 to 60 minutes. No differences were found between these groups.
The study's preliminary findings indicated that executive functioning reported by caregivers was below typical pre-pandemic levels and below what would be expected from the child's nonverbal reasoning score. One-third of children in the sample were rated as having executive functioning needs.
The researchers say the findings suggest that limited social diversity in the early years has affected everyday executive functioning. They say children may find it difficult to settle and stay on task, remember or follow instructions, resist distraction, or change their behavior based on feedback.
A more uneven picture emerged for language. Overall, language scores were at or above expected levels for age.
However, when the researchers used the child's nonverbal reasoning ability scores as a benchmark, they found that expressive language (how a child uses words to express themselves) was below what would be expected.
The researchers suggest that receptive language (how a child understands language) may have been somewhat protected by increased attention and communication from parents and caregivers during the lockdown.
In contrast, expressive language skills may have suffered because of the loss of rich and varied interactions with less familiar people during the pandemic.
Motor skills were as expected for age when compared with pre-pandemic norms, the researchers report.
The study is observational, so no firm conclusions can be drawn about cause and effect. A limitation is that it did not have a matched comparison group.
Executive functioning and motor skills were measured through reports from parents or caregivers and were not directly assessed, so they could be subject to parental bias. In later phases of the study, direct measures of executive function will be available for comparison with children born after lockdown.
Another limitation is that the sample was self-selected, although it included a diverse range of demographic, ethnic and geographic backgrounds across England.
However, participating families had higher educational levels than the general English population, with around three-quarters of parents holding a degree, which could have led to some above-average scores.
The researchers concluded, "This study highlights the need for continued tracking of the cohort of children born during the COVID-19 lockdowns. Additional resources may be needed for school and family interventions to support the executive function needs of these children."
Publication details
Developmental outcomes in 4 year old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born in COVID Year - Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study., Archives of Disease in Childhood (2026). DOI: 10.1136/archdischild-2025-329529
Journal information: Archives of Disease in Childhood
Key medical concepts
Executive FunctionMotor Skills
Clinical categories
PediatricsChildren's healthPsychology & Mental health Provided by British Medical Journal Who's behind this story?
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