Human brain is two separate organs, research finds

by Stanford University Medical Center

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For centuries, scientists have thought of the brain as a single, unified organ. But new research led by Stanford Medicine reveals that what we call the brain is two distinct organs that evolved independently over hundreds of millions of years.

The discovery overturns a prevailing model of brain development. For decades, researchers have subscribed to the theory that a single progenitor cell early in development gives rise to the entire brain. This model suggested all parts of the brain shared a common developmental origin.

The new findings show that the human brain consists of two ancient nervous systems packaged together—a more primitive part that regulates our hearts' beating, breathing and other functions, and another that makes us distinctly human, capable of poetry, mathematics and wondering about our own origins.

The discovery could help explain why scientists have struggled for decades to grow certain types of brain cells in the laboratory—and it opens new avenues for studying devastating diseases that affect the brain stem, such as spinal muscular atrophy (also known as SMA) and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (also known as ALS or Lou Gehrig's disease).

"We've shown for the first time that the front of the brain arises from a totally different progenitor cell than the back of the brain," said Kyle Loh, Ph.D., associate professor of developmental biology. "Our discovery means that we can now grow neurons from the back of the brain, the hindbrain, in a Petri dish and study their functions."

The findings are published in Nature Neuroscience. Loh is the senior author. Graduate students Carolyn Dundes and Rayyan Jokhai are co-first authors of the research.

Two brains

The adult brain has three main regions: the forebrain, midbrain and hindbrain. The forebrain handles higher-level thinking—language, consciousness and abstract reasoning. In contrast, the hindbrain, located at the back of the skull and often called the brain stem, controls essential, automatic functions that keep us alive: breathing, sleeping and regulating our heartbeat and hunger urges. Hindbrain neurons also control the muscles of the face, tongue and throat, which affect speech and swallowing.

Despite the critical importance of the hindbrain, scientists have struggled for decades to generate human hindbrain neurons in the laboratory. This gap has hampered research into devastating diseases affecting the brain stem, including spinal muscular atrophy and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

SMA is a leading genetic cause of death in children under 1 year of age. ALS, which is often diagnosed between the ages of 40–70, affects both the forebrain and the hindbrain. In both disorders, certain hindbrain neurons gradually cease to function, and the patient loses the ability to swallow, which can cause pneumonia when food or liquid is inhaled into the lungs. Eventually, patients lose the ability to breathe.

The researchers' breakthrough came from studying the earliest moments of embryonic development, during a stage called gastrulation, when the body first takes shape. Jokhai and Dundes discovered that the hindbrain follows a separate developmental path, running in parallel to—rather than branching off from—the pathway that creates the forebrain and midbrain.

The researchers learned this by examining developing mouse embryos. They identified two different brain progenitor cells. One, which expresses a gene called Otx2, is destined to become the forebrain and midbrain. The other, which expresses a gene called Gbx2, is committed to forming the hindbrain. They showed that these two cell populations never overlap; they are mutually exclusive from the earliest stages of development.

The team then examined the DNA packaging, or chromatin, in these cells. Chromatin is a way cells determine which genes can be easily accessed and which are bundled away out of reach. What they found was striking: The anterior neural ectoderm (future forebrain and midbrain) and posterior neural ectoderm (future hindbrain) have fundamentally different chromatin configurations. These differences essentially locked each progenitor cell into its respective fate, like travelers on parallel tracks that never cross.

"Previous attempts to make hindbrain neurons likely tried to coax forebrain and midbrain progenitors into hindbrain cells, which our study shows is not possible," Jokhai said.

This revelation explained decades of frustration in the field—scientists had been trying to turn one type of progenitor cell into another that it is fundamentally incapable of becoming.

"In stem cell biology, people are always fixated on creating the end cell type, like the neuron," Jokhai said. "But it's important to begin at the earliest stages of embryonic development. Our careful attention to that early time point allowed us to find this fundamental split in brain development."

Growing hindbrain neurons

Armed with this knowledge, the researchers for the first time successfully coaxed human pluripotent stem cells (a kind of cell that can create any cell in the human body) to become functional hindbrain motor neurons in the laboratory. These lab-grown neurons displayed all the hallmarks of authentic hindbrain cells: They exhibited waves of electrical activity called action potentials and made proteins that identify the segments of the hindbrain that control facial and swallowing muscles.

Finally, the researchers looked back over 550 million years of evolutionary time. They found the same two-origin brain pattern in chickens, zebrafish and, remarkably, acorn worms, tiny creatures living on the ocean floor that share a distant common ancestor with humans. Jellyfish, which diverged from humans about 600–700 million years ago, have two nervous systems at different ends of their bodies.

"Our research suggests that evolution took two existing neural systems and pushed them together spatially," Loh said. "Having the brain as one organ would probably be more efficient, but we rely on this primordial way to make the brain as two separate pieces."

"I was surprised at our findings because the word 'brain' implies a contiguous organ that likely has a singular origin," Jokhai said. "But even 500 million years ago, there were these separate neural systems, which now almost operate as one, which is very cool."

The research also has implications for investigating treatments for SMA, ALS and other conditions affecting the brain stem. Until now, studying these diseases has been nearly impossible because scientists cannot obtain brain stem tissue from living patients. The ability to grow these neurons in a dish opens new possibilities for understanding what goes wrong. There's even an unexpected connection to obesity treatment: The hindbrain contains circuits that regulate hunger—which is precisely how weight-loss drugs like semaglutide work.

The researchers would like to extend their studies to determine the developmental origins of the spinal cord and to learn exactly how SMA and ALS compromise the function of hindbrain neurons.

"Now we have a model to better understand these devastating diseases and work toward regenerative therapies for them," Jokhai said. "This is a very exciting new frontier in brain research."

Researchers from the California Institute of Technology and the University of California, San Francisco contributed to the study.

Publication details

Two parallel neural ectoderm progenitors contribute to the developing brain, Nature Neuroscience (2026). DOI: 10.1038/s41593-026-02433-7

Journal information: Nature Neuroscience

Key medical concepts

Amyotrophic Lateral SclerosisSpinal Muscular Atrophy

Clinical categories

Neurology Provided by Stanford University Medical Center Who's behind this story?

Gaby Clark

MA in English, copy editor since 2021 with experience in higher education and health content. Dedicated to trustworthy science news. Full profile →

Robert Egan

Bachelor's in mathematical biology, Master's in creative writing. Well-traveled with unique perspectives on science and language. Full profile →

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